Human biology

Unit 4 Self Evaluation

2008-07-25T11:00:00.000-07:00

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? The compendium reviews and the list of species.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? The labs on the fertility rate one as I wasnt sure if I even did it right.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? I believe my grade should be A-B. I worked really hard on this unit. I spent many hours on the Compendium reviews and researching the species and writing about each one.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit? I always say this but its always true, start working a little earlier on everything that way I won't have to work so late into the night.

REGARDING THE UNIT
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? Looking up each and everyone of the species. I feel that it made me learn a lot about different species.

At what moment in the unit did you feel most distanced from the course? During the fertility lab because it was really confusing.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? On the List of species lab I got confused on how many of the species I was actually suppose to write about so I may have written about more than I needed to because just wasn't clear on it.

What about this unit surprised you the most? How the species have a different role in our ecosystem and how important these different roles are.

List of Species 20-30

2008-07-24T23:01:00.000-07:00

20: Scientific Name: Turnicidae
Common Name: Quail
21: Scientific Name Polecat
Common Name Polecat
22: Scientific Name Turdus Merula
Common Name Black Bird
23: Scientific Name Parkinsonia
Common Name Pala Verde
24: Scientific Name Felis Catus
Common Name Cat
25: Scientifc Name Oryctolagus cuniculus
Common Name Rabbits
26: Scientific Name Cervus canadensis
Common Name Elk
27: Scientific Name Zenaida macroura
Common Name Dove
28: Scientific Name Phasianus colchicas
Common Name Pheasant
29 Scientific Name Gopherus Agassizi
Common Name Desert Tortoise
30: Scientific Name Castor canadensis
Common Name Beaver

Species #20

2008-07-24T22:37:00.000-07:00

Scientific name- Crotalus afrox
Common name- Western Diamondback Rattlesnake
Rattlesnakes hibernate in caves or burrows.
Adult specimens have no natural predators. Hawks, eagles and other snakes have been known to prey on young rattlesnakes.
Rattlesnakes are a key participant in the food web of many small rodents, rabbits and birds. In turn the rattlesnake is preyed upon by a variety of larger mammals and birds.
Rattlesnakes are not domesticated species.

Species #19

2008-07-24T22:21:00.000-07:00

Scientific Name: Coccinella septempunctata
Common Name: Lady Bug/Lady Beetle
Lady bugs are most commonly known as beneficial insects. Both adults and larvae feed on many different soft bodied insects with aphids (plant lice) being their main food source.
Lady bugs are very valuable to our eco-system because they control pests.
I believe that Lady bugs are domesticated because they can be considered humans best friend by working like a pesticide to kill pests.

Species #18

2008-07-24T22:09:00.000-07:00

Scientific name- Streptococcus Bacteria
Common name- Strep throat
Strep throat is a micro organism
The bacteria that cause strep throat tend to hang out in the nose and throat, so normal activities like sneezing, coughing, or shaking hands can easily spread infection from one person to another.
I believe that strep throat is domesticated because it is part of the human body.

Species #17

2008-07-24T21:54:00.000-07:00

Scientific name- Felis Catus Cats Cynodon
Common name- Bermuda grass
Bermuda grass is a major turf species for sports fields, lawns, parks and golf courses. It can also be a serious weed in many crops being a vigorous growing grass. It is a difficult weed to eradicate because of its seed production and deep rhizomes. Bermuda grass is a food source to many species.
I believe Bermuda grass is domesticated because humans control where it is planted and it is around our homes.

Species #16

2008-07-24T21:32:00.000-07:00

Scientific Name: Voles

Common Name: Mouse

The most common mouse is the common house mouse. It is found almost all over the world, and is used as a laboratory mouse because it serves as a model organism in biology. It is also a popular pet. Mice living in the wild usually only live up to 5 months due to heavy predation. Cats, wild dogs, foxes, birds of prey, snakes, and certain insects have been known to prey heavily upon mice. Mice can be harmful pests, damaging crops, and spreading diseases through there parasites and feces.

I believe that mice are domesticated because they are used in laboratories and can be pets.

Species #15

2008-07-24T21:30:00.000-07:00

Common name- plaque
Scientific name- supragingival chemical
Plaque is a sticky, colorless film of bacteria that forms on teeth. It makes them feel fuzzy to the tongue and is most noticeable when teeth are not brushed.
Plaque develops when food containing carbohydrates are left on the teeth.
Bacteria that lives in the mouth thrive on these foods-producing acids and over time these acids destroy tooth enamel.
Plaque formation can be provented by brushing teeth at least twice a day with tooth paste. Toothpaste will kill the plaque.
I believe plaque is domesticated because it is a bacteria that lives in the human body.

Species #14

2008-07-24T21:11:00.001-07:00

Scientific Name: Canis Lupis

Common Name: Dog

Dogs are domesticated subspecies of the wolf. Dogs are widely kept for working and as pets also in human history they are being used as a food source in some cultures. Dogs are very important to people by helping people who are blind, deaf, physically disabled. They also help the police catch the bad guys. They can sniff out illegal products, such as drugs, and things that have been smuggled into the United States of America. Other dogs that help humans are search and rescue dogs these dogs help find missing persons.

I believe that dogs are domesticated because they play a huge role in human lives each and everyday. Whether it be just as a loving friend or helping find missing people.

Species #13

2008-07-24T21:04:00.000-07:00

Common name: cattle
Scientific name: ungulates
of the family- Bovinae
Cattle are raised as livestock for meat, dairy products, and are used for pulling carts and plows. Cows interbreed with other closely related species.
Adult male- bull
Castrated male- steer
Young female before having a calf- heifer
Adult female that has had one or more calves- cow
Young cattle- calves
Cattle are domesticated because as livestock they are a source of food.

Species #12

2008-07-24T20:41:00.000-07:00

Common name: Hummingbirds
Scientific name: Apodiforms
Hummingbirds are specialized nectarivores. Many plants pollinated by hummingbirds produce flowers in shades of red, orange and bright pink. Although they will take nector from flowers of many colors. Hummingbird pollinated flowers produce weak nector containing high concentrations of sucrose whereas insect pollinated flowers produce nectars dominated by fuctose and glucose. With the exception of insects, hummingbirds while in flight have the highest metabolism of all animals. This is necessity to support the rapid beating of their wings. They typically consume more than their own weight in nectar a day so they must visit hundreds of flowers daily.
I don't believe hummingbirds are domesticated because humans do not interact with them.

Species #11

2008-07-24T20:21:00.000-07:00

Common name: mushroom
Scientific name: Eumycotes
A Mushroom is produced by fungal organism. I have witnessed if we have alot of moisture on our grass and it is really humid, mushrooms will develop in the yard. Mushrooms acquire nutrients by breaking down dead organic matter including animal wastes. Mushrooms are decomposers and are valuable because they release inorganic substances that are taken up by plants.
Mushrooms are also a food source to other species including humans.
I think that mushrooms are domesticated because we eat them.

Species #10

2008-07-24T20:07:00.000-07:00

Common name: dust mites
Scientific name: Dermatophagoides Farinae
Dust mites are Detritus feeders, they feed on organic matter such as flakes of shed human skin. They flourish in the stable environment of dwellings. They can be killed by micro predators by exposure to direct sun rays.
Dust mites are the most common cause of asthma and allergic symptoms world wide.
I think dust mites are domesticated because they live in our homes with us even though we may not see them.

Species #9

2008-07-24T19:46:00.000-07:00

Common name: Green Algae
Scientific name: Chlorophytes
Green algae contains two forms of chlorophyll which captures light energy to fuel the manufacture of sugars. Algae is a photosynthetic organism meaning it produces most of the organic nutrients for the bisphere.Therefore it produces food in freshwater and marine habitats.
My dad thinks Algae is kinda a nuisance to try and control in our swimming pool but he continues to put chemicals in to control it.
I think algae is domesticated because it is all around us and probably sometimes we don't always see it.

Species #8

2008-07-24T19:29:00.000-07:00

Scientific Name: Scorpinida
Common Name: Scorpions
Scorpions are an eight legged venomous invertebrate, they are related to spiders, mites, ticks and harvestmen. They ambush their pray lying in wait as they sense its approach. They eat all types of insects, spiders, centipedes, and other scorpions. Bigger scorpions may feed on vertebrates, such as smaller lizards, snakes, and mice. They capture their prey by their pedipalps, paralyzing them with their venom if it is necessary. The prey is then subjected to an acid spray that dissolves the tissues, that then allows the scorpion to suck up the remains. Not only are they predators they can also be prey eaten by creatures such as centipedes, tarantulas, insectivorous lizards, birds, and mammals. Bats hunt scorpions for food.
I believe that scorpions aren't domesticated.

Species #7

2008-07-24T19:13:00.000-07:00

Common name: E coli
Scientific name: Escherichia coli
Most strains of E coli are harmless and lives in intestines of humans and animals. However, E. coli 0157:H7, is a powerful strain that produces a powerful toxin that can cause illness. An outbreak traced to this strain was caused by eating undercooked ground beef.
E coli is a bacteria and it acquires nutrients by breaking down dead organic matter. This bacteria helps our intestines break down waste.
I think that E coli would be domesticated because it lives within our bodies and we are accustomed to it being there.

Species #6

2008-07-24T19:00:00.000-07:00

Common name: honey bee
Scientific name: Apis Mellifera
Bees are the most important pollinating insects, their interdependence with plants makes them an excellent example of the type of symbiosis known as mutualism, association between unlike organisms that is beneficial to both parties.
Bees are very important to human food supply because they pollinate plants which produces more plants.
Bees are not domesticated species.

Species #5

2008-07-24T16:44:00.000-07:00

Common Name: red fire ant
Scientific Name:Solenopsis invicta Buren
Ants are social insects and live in colonies or nests. New ant colonies are started by a single fertilized queen ant that lays eggs and tends her brood that develop into working ants. The worker than takes over tending the brood and may shift the brood from place to place as moisture and temperature fluctuate in the nest. Fire ants build mounds out of soil. When the mound is disturbed, ants emerge aggressively to bite and sting the intruder.
Ants are terrestrial detritus feeders meaning they feed on decomposing particles of organic matter. When they bite they spray acid which in a human feels similar to getting burned by fire.
Ants are not domesticated species and when they enter homes, are a nuisance to humans because they contaminate food.

Species #4

2008-07-24T16:32:00.000-07:00

Scientific Name: Arecaceae or Palma
Common Name: Palm tree
Many common products and food are derived from palm. Palm trees are also widely used in landscaping for their exotic appearance making them one of the most economically important plants. Also symbols for idea as victory, peace and fertility.

I believe that Palm trees are domesticated because they are in many people's yards where the climate is ideal for them. Many parts of Arizona have palm trees because they like hotter temperatures. We have several of them in our yard. So the population of palm trees by way of selection have been domesticated.

Species #3

2008-07-24T15:59:00.000-07:00

Scientific Name: Prosopis
Common Name: Mesquite Tree
The beans from the mesquite tree can be ground into flour to make bread and other bread like things. It also is full of nutrients for many animals. The Indian people and the Hispanic and Anglo settlers believed that the mesquites showed individuality, adaptability, opportunism, toughness and stubbornness.

I believe that the mesquite tree is domesticated because they have become accustomed to human control.

Humans co evolve with the mesquite tree because the beans from it are used to make flour. They also were a symbol to early settlers.

Species #2

2008-07-24T15:42:00.000-07:00

Scientific Name: Spermophilus Lateralis
Common Name: Ground Squirrel

Family: Sciuridae

Ground Squirrels adjust antipredator behavior in complex ways to diversity the predators that eat them. They migrate to other habitats to adapt.Snakes are major squirrel predators. Ground squirrels can hurt shrubs, vines, and trees by chewing on them. They also eat many grasses, seeds, grains, and nuts. They eat more before the winter so that they can live through the time when food won't be easy to get.

Because ground squirrels eat plants they are Herbivores.

Ground squirrel's are not domesticated and I feel they are co-evolving with humans by cleaning up crumbs and uneaten foods that humans leave behind.

Species #1

2008-07-24T15:23:00.000-07:00

Scientific Name: Zeamays

Common Name: Corn

Family: Poaceae

Corn is used in many food that we eat. There are economic benefits of improved soil quality with soil rotation (changing from one crop to a different crop after harvest) therefore you get higher yields.

Ethanol is produced from corn as a biomass through industrial fermentation, chemical processing and distillation. Ethanol is used as an alternative gasoline and petroleum. Greenhouse gas is released during ethanol production but is recaptured as a nutrient to the crops that are used in production.

I believe that corn is a domesticated species because corn is all around us in so many food that we eat.

Unit 4 Ethical Issue: Is Population the Problem? And Who Should Reproduce?

2008-07-24T14:28:00.000-07:00

The article from Moses and Brown discussed many issues that relate to developed and under developed countries and what has an effect on population. Under developed nations have more children but don't use a lot of energy resources. Developed countries have fewer children but use more resources then under developed nations. One of the reasons for us using so many more resources is because we are using those resources to feed and help out under developed countries. Also we have many advantages that under developed countries do not have the options to and these were not mentioned in the article and can have an affect on population. In developed countries both the mother and father have careers therefore don't have the time to have more children. They also have the options to many different birth control contraceptives that allow them to prevent unwanted births.
Like the article, I believe that education in the developed countries has a lot to do with controlling population. So I really don't believe in the developed countries that population is a problem and does not need to be controlled like under developed countries.

Unit 4 Online Lab

2008-07-23T16:21:00.000-07:00

1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

There are many countries that have a high fertility rate. The one I picked was the Soviet Union and it has a fertility rate of 2.29

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate? The country that I selected for low fertility rate was Iraq and has a fertility rate of 7.00

3. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth? I think that high fertility rates happen to younger people is because of unplanned pregnance.

4. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middleaged people. I think that low fertility rates result in middleaged people because they have already started a family or have a good career and dont have time to have a baby.

5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle aged and older people in the population and write ten quick brain storm descriptors that you think it would be like. Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.

Very few elementary schools and high schools, wouldnt need jobs working with children, putting time into other activities such as golfing, fishing, ect..., wouldnt be a lot of toys in the stores to buy, music would be different, television would change, video game sales would decline, fashion, electronics, and housing.

A lot of schools, would need a lot of jobs that deal with children, food, toys, the music would be for younger children, sports, out door activities, fashion, and bigger houses,

Compendium Review Chapters 22, 23 & 24

2008-07-23T16:12:00.000-07:00

Chapter 22
Evolution is a scientific theory, ideas that scientists have found to be all encompassing because they are based on evidence collected.
Evolution begins with the origin of life. Biology states that all living things are made of cells and every cell comes from a preexisting cell. Non living chemicals could be how the first cells came to be created by a chemical evolution.
Earth was probably formed over a 10 billion year period. Earth’s atmosphere is much different today then when it was first formed. The primitive atmosphere was more than likely formed by gases escaping from volcanoes so therefore had little if any free oxygen.
The oceans of the world were produced by enormous amounts of rain over hundreds of millions of years.
A protocell which can not reproduce but can carry on metabolism could have come into existence. Since it could not take in molecules in the ocean for food, it more than likely was an organism that took in preformed food and being a fermenter and not requiring free oxygen because primitive Earth had no free oxygen.
Scientists were trying to figure out how cells had both RNA and DNA. By doing many hypotheses they found out that RNA formed from enzymes and then they could use RNA as a template to form DNA.
In today’s cells, DNA replicates before cell division occurs because true cells reproduce. The replication process is carried out by enzymatic proteins.
The first true cells were the simplest of life forms and lacked a nucleus, later cells which have a nuclei evolved. All of these organisms are alive today.
Almost all living organisms use the same basic biochemical molecules, including DNA, ATP, and many enzymes. Humans share a large number of genes with much simpler organisms. Life’s vast diversity came about by only a slight difference in the regulation of genes.
Biological evolution: is the process by which a species changes through time.
Two aspects to this type of evolution: descent from a common ancestor and adapt to the environment and adapt to different environments and be able to survive and reproduce in this environment.
A mechanism for adaptation called natural selection. Members of a species vary in physical characteristics. There are limited resources that mean there is competition for it which results in unequal reproduction among members of a population.
Adaptation to changes in the environment and selects for better adapted traits natural section accounts for the great diversity life. Every organism adapt differently to their own way of life.
Fossils which are the actual remains of species that lived on Earth at least 10,000 to billions of years ago are the best evidence for evolution.
Fossils can be: trails, footprints, burrows, worm casts, preserved droppings, pieces of bones, impressions of plants, insects in tree amber, Most fossils are found embedded in rock. Many things have been learned about primitive life by studying fossils including history of life, climates and environments.
The origin of mammals is well documented by studying fossils. The earliest true mammals are about 200 million years old.
The study of distribution of plants and animals in different places throughout the world is Biogeography. There are different mix of plants and animals in separate continents, islands and seas. Some animal types may not be in some continents because they evolved somewhere else and had no way of reaching other parts even though the environment might be suited for them. Many unique species make their home in the islands of the world but are not found anywhere else in the world. The reason for this is they migrated to that island and then evolved into different species on that island. Many times evolution is influenced by the mix of plants and animals in a particular continent.
The anatomical similarities among organisms can be explained that the basic plan belonged to a common ancestor and the plan was adapted as each group continued along its own evolutionary path. Some are similar because they are inherited from a common ancestor, however in contrast some have structures that serve the same function but they are not constructed the same nor do they share a common ancestry.
During adaptation a species becomes suited to its environment, this process is natural selection. Variation, competition for limited resources such as food and adaptation are the elements of this process. This accounts for the diversity of life in the different environments and why the adaptations are varied.
Humans are primates, meaning they have mobile limbs, grasping hands, a flattened face, binocular vision, a large complex brain and a reduced reproductive rate. Humans are most closely related to monkeys and apes because monkeys and apes have certain characteristics similar to us.
The first modern humans were Neandertals and Cro-Magnons and later Homo habilis which may be the ancestor to modern human, the study of fossils date the early homo between 2.0 and 1.9 MYA and the jaw and teeth resemble those of humans. It is very unlikely that human evolution produced the same result in different places. Therefore human populations have evolved separately for along time with genetic differences.
Since the beginning of human evolution just like with other species, human beings have been widely distributed about the globe. Today we say that people have different ethnicities. One hypothesized theory is that human variations evolved to adapt to a certain environment, like the difference between humans skin color. However other differences among ethnic groups such as hair texture and shape of lips cannot be explained as adaptation to the environment. These features may have been fixed in different ethnic populations simply by genetics.

Chapter 23
Ecosystem: is a place where organisms interact with themselves and the environment physically and chemically.
Organisms are found on planet earth from the atmosphere to the depths of the oceans and everything in between is known as the biosphere. The entire biosphere is one giant ecosystem.
The different ecosystems
Temperature and rainfall define the biomes, which contain communities of organisms adapted to the regional climate
Tropical rain forest, which occurs at the equator, is dominated by large evergreen, broad leaved trees.
Savanna is tropical grassland that supports many types of grazing animals.
Temperate grasslands receive less rainfall than temperate forest and more water than deserts which lack trees.
Taiga is a very cold northern coniferous forest and the tundra which borders the North Pole, is also very cold, long winters and short growing seasons.
Aquatic ecosystems are those composed of freshwater and those composed of salt water.
The role of an organism in an ecosystem like how it gets its food, what it eats and how it interacts with other populations in the same community is a niche.
Non living components of the ecosystem are abiotic components. Biotic components are living things that are categorized by their food source.
Some species are autotrophs and are called producers because they produce food. Other species are called heterotrophs and they need a source of organic nutrients. They consume food so are therefore consumers.
Herbivores: animals that graze directly on plants or algae
Carnivores: animals that feed on other animals
Omnivores: animals that feed both on plants and animals
Detritus feeders: organisms that feed on detritus (decomposing particles of organic matter)
All species play an important role in the food chain, therefore are important to the ecosystem.
Global biogeochemical cycles: pathways by which chemicals circulate through ecosystems involve both living and nonliving components. All organisms require a variety of organic and/or inorganic nutrients. Global biogeochemical cycle can be gaseous or sedimentary.
The water cycle—evaporation from the ocean, precipitation to ocean, precipitation over land, transportation from plants, evaporation from soil, freshwater runoff, aquifer
The carbon cycle---plants take up carbon dioxide from the air and incorporate carbon into nutrients, when organisms respire carbon is returned to the atmosphere therefore carbon recycles to plants by the atmosphere, carbon dioxide from the air combines with water to produce HCO3, the amount of HCO3 in the water is in equilibrium with the amount of carbon dioxide in the air, living and dead organisms contain organic carbon and serve as reservoirs for the carbon cycle, plant and animal remains were transformed into fossil fuels, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases are contributing significantly to an overall rise in the Earth’s ambient temperature, a phenomenon referred to by scientists as global warming. This effect could bring about other changes.

Chapter 24
Growth rate is determined by considering the different between the number of persons born per year and the number who die per year.
The carrying capacity is the maximum population that the environment can support for an indefinite period.
The more development countries (MDC) typified by countries in north America and Europe, population growth is modest and people enjoy a good standard of living.
The less development countries (LDCS) typified by some countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America population growth is dramatic and the majority of people live in poverty.
People can help out ecological by driving energy efficient car, living in a smaller house, owning fewer possessions, eating vegetables as opposed to meat.
Living right on the coast can be bad because it leads to beach erosion and loss of habitat for marine organisms and loss of a buffer zone for storms. About 70% of the world’s beaches are eroding.
In water poor areas of the world, people might not have clean drinking water or impure. Food comes from three activities: growing crops, raised animals and fishing the seas.
Genetic engineering produces transgenic plants with new and different traits. Researchers hope to produce crops that tolerate salt drought and cold.
Modern society runs on various types of energy. Some are nonrenewable such as fossil fuels and global climate change. Others are renewable: hydropower,geothermal energy, wind power, energy and the solar hydrogen revolution and photovoltaic solar cell.
Life on earth is biodiversity which means the number of species on earth. We are now in a biodiversity eristic because of extinction. Why is biodiversity so important? Different species perform useful services for human beings and contribute greatly to the value we should place on biodiversity.
A sustainable society will always be able to provide the same amount of goods and services for future generations as it does at present.
We are quick to realize that population growth in the LDCs creates an environmental burden, we also need to consider excessive resource consumption of the MDCs also stresses the environment.

Compendium Review Chapters 16 & 17

2008-07-23T16:08:00.000-07:00

Chapter 16
Puberty is events that a child goes through in order to become sexually competent young adults it happens between the ages of 11 & 13 in girls and 14 & 16 in boys. Until puberty is complete, the reproductive system does not begin to fully function and at this time the individual is capable of producing children.
Reproduction organs have these functions:
In men they produce sperm within testes, and in females they produce eggs within ovaries.
Males nurture and transport sperm in ducts till it leaves the penis and in females they transport eggs in uterine tubes to the uterus.
The penis delivers sperm to the vagina that receives the sperm. The vagina also is the exit for menstrual flow and is the birth canal.
The uterus allows the fertilized egg to develop in her body. After the birth the female breast provides milk.
The testes and ovaries produce sex hormones that help maintain the testes and ovaries and have effects on the body. In the females the sex hormones allow pregnancy to continue.

Male Reproductive Organs and their function:
There are two testes and they are suspended in the sacs of the scrotum and they produce sperm and sex hormones. Sperm matures in a tightly coiled duct lying outside each testis. Mature sperm is required for it to swim to the egg.
These tightly coiled ducts where sperm matures are called epididymides.
Vasa deferentia is another storage place for sperm after leaving the epididymides. Each Vas deferens passes into the abdominal cavity where it curves around the bladder and empties into the ejaculatory duct.
Urethra is where the ejaculatory ducts enter and it conducts sperm. The urethra carries either urine or semen at different times.
Seminal vesicles, Bulbourethral glands and prostrate gland each contribute fluid to the semen. The seminal vesicles also add nutrients.
Penis is an organ of sexual intercourse. During sexual arousal nerves release nitric oxide, and this stimulus leads to the production of cyclic guanosine monophosphate which causes the smooth muscle of the arterial walls to relax. The erectile tissue will fill with blood and the veins that take blood away from the penis are compressed and the penis becomes erect. Ejaculation occurs as sexual stimulation intensifies, sperm enters the urethra from each vas deferens and the glands contribute secretions to the seminal fluid. Rhythmic muscle contractions cause it to be expelled from the penis in spurts. At the time of ejaculation, sperm leaves the penis in a fluid called semen.
The penis is covered by a layer of skin called foreskin. Shortley after birth this skin is surgical removed.

The prostrate can become enlarged in older men which squeezes off the urethra making urination painful and difficult. This condition can be treated medically.

Erectile dysfunction or impotency occurs when the erectile tissue does not expand enough to compress the veins. Medications can treat Erectile dysfunction by inhibiting the enzyme that breaks down cyclic guanosine monophosphate making it possible for a full erection.

Condoms are 97% effective in preventing pregnancy if they are used right. The reason is because a condom catches seminal fluid because it is placed over the erect penis so that it does not enter the vagina.

Mature sperm contain a head, middle piece and a tail. Mitochondria are in the middle piece that provides energy for the movement of the tail. The head has a nucleus covered by a cap which stores enzymes needed to penetrate the egg. Flagellated sperm is very small compared to the egg. As it swims to the egg it is specialized to carry only chromosomes and the egg is specialized to wait for the arrival of the sperm.

Testosterone is the main sex hormone in males. It is essential for the normal development and function of the male reproductive organs. It also brings about male sex characteristics and development of muscles. Males development of hair on face, chest and other regions such as their back is due to testosterone.

Female Reproductive Organs and their function:
Oviducts also called uterine or fallopian tubes and they extend from the uterus to the ovaries. They are not attached to the ovaries but they have finger like projections that sweep over the ovaries. An egg bursts from an ovary during ovulation into an oviduct and this is where fertilization occurs. Zygote formation which is the first cell of a new human being takes place in these oviducts.
Uterus is where the developing embryo arrives after several days. The uterus is referred to as the womb because it houses the embryo and this is where development of the embryo and fetus takes place. The uterus is a muscular organ about the size and shape of an inverted pear. Endometrium is the lining of the uterus which participates in the formation of the placenta. The placenta supplies nutrients needed for fetal development.
Ovaries, there are two and they produce eggs and sex hormones. An ovary contains follicles and each one contains an oocyte which is an immature egg. Only a small number of follicles ever mature because a female usually produces only one egg per month during the ovarian cycle.
Cervix is at the lower end of the uterus and contains the opening to the uterus and it enters the vagina nearly at a right angle. A small opening in the cervix leads to the vaginal canal.
Vagina is a tube that lies to the small of the back. The vagina serves as the birth canal and receives the penis during sexual intercourse. It also is the exit for menstrual flow.
The urinary and reproductive systems in a female are entirely separate unlike a male. The urethra carries only urine whereas the vagina serves as the birth canal and organ to receive the penis during intercourse.

A pap test is very important for early detection of cancer in the cervix. The pap test is done by removing cells from the region of the cervix and examining them under a microscope. If the cells from the pap are cancerous they may recommend that you have a hysterectomy. A hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus including the cervix. A radical hysterectomy is removal of the ovaries as well.

The clitoris is the organ of sexual arousal in a female and can swell to two or three times it usual size because it becomes engorged with blood during sexual stimulation. The thrusting of the penis and the pressure of the pubic symphyses of the partners’ act to stimulate the clitoris.

Estrogen and Progesterone are hormones that affect not only the uterus but other parts of the body too. Estrogen is responsible for the secondary sex characteristics in females like body hair and fat distribution. Both hormones are required for breast development.

If an egg is not fertilized by a sperm cell than it dies shortly after be released from the ovary. When appropriate the vesicular follicle bursts releasing the egg surrounded by a clear membrane which is ovulation.

Menopause occurs in a women’s life between the ages of 45 and 55 and this is when the ovarian cycle ceases. The ovaries are no longer responsive to the gonadotropic hormones and the ovaries no longer secrete estrogen and progesterone. At the onset menstruation becomes irregular. However it is still possible for a woman to conceive as long as it occurs. Menopause is not considered complete until menstruation is absent for a year.

The different forms of contraceptives (birth control) are the intrauterine device, hormone skin patch, Depo-Provera, diaphragms and spermicidal jelly, female condom, male condom, implant and oral contraception. Natural family planning which is keeping records to determine day of ovulation. Pregnancy can’t occur when the female is not ovulating. Each one has a different effectiveness and has different side affect on different people. Abstinence (not engaging in sexual intercourse) is the most reliable form of birth control.
Tubal ligation consists of cutting and sealing the oviducts on a female, pregnancy rarely occurs because passage of the egg through the oviducts has been blocked.
Vasectomy consists of cutting and sealing the vas deferens on both sides on a male so sperm can not reach the seminal fluid that is ejected at the time of orgasm.
Both tubal ligation and vasectomy are methods that bring about sterilization and are permanent.

Infertility is the failure of a couple to achieve pregnancy after one year of regular unprotected intercourse. There are several causes of infertility in males and females. The most common cause in males is low sperm count. The most significant factor in females is body weight.

The different types of sexually transmitted diseases (STD’S):
STD’S CAUSED BY VIRUSES:
Genital warts carriers might not have any signs. When present the warts are mostly found on the penis and foreskin of men and near the vaginal opening in women.
Genital herpes type 1 usually cause cold sores and fever blisters

Type 2 more often causes genital herpes
HIV/AIDS- AIDS is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. HIV infects and destroys cells of the immune system. Aids is the advanced stage of HIV when a person develops one or more infections due to the immune system being severely weakened.
Hepatitis infects the liver and can lead to liver failure.
STD”S CAUSED BY BACTERIA:
Chlamydia symptoms are in men are mild burning sensation during urination and vaginal as well as symptoms of a urinary tract infection.

Gonorrhea symptoms are pain during urination and a thick greenish yellow urethral discharge in men. Gonorrhea can spread to internal parts of the body causing heart damage or arthritis.

Syphilis has three stages. #1- sore with hard edges which indicates the site of infection #2- break out in a rash that does not itch #3- this stage last until the person dies and may affect cardiovascular system by causing aneurysms. The disease may affect the nervous system resulting in psychological disturbances. Large ulcers may develop on the skin or within internal organs.

Chapter 17
Fertilization is the joining of sperm and egg to form a zygote the first cell of the new individual then it goes over the process the sperm cell goes through to fertilize an egg.

Pre Embryonic and embryonic development
Process of development
Cleavage happens right after fertilization then the zygote divides first into 2 then 4,8,16 and 32 cells. Cell division during this stage is mitotic and each cell will receive a full complement of chromosomes and genes.
Growth during the embryonic development cell division happens by an increase size of the daughter cells.
Morphogenesis is the shaping of the embryo and is shown when certain cells are seen to move or migrate in relation to other cells. By each one of these movements the embryo begins taking shape.
Differentiation when cells form a specific structure and function, differentiation occurs. The first system that becomes visible is the nervous system.

Stages of development
The first week of pre embryonic development happens during this time.
Second week the embryo usually begins the process of implanting itself in the wall of the uterus.
Third week two important organ systems are formed and start appearing. The organs are the nervous system and development of the heart begins.
Fourth and Fifth weeks the embryo is barely larger then the height of this print.
Sixth through eighth week the embryo changes to a form that is easily recognized as a human being.
The normal gestation period is 280 days, however only about 5% of babies actually arrive on the predicted date. A doctor can calculate the due date by adding 280 days to the start of the womans last menstruation date.

Pregnancy and birth
When first pregnant the women might experience nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Although some women say that during this time they have increase in energy. Also during pregnancy the mother gains weight due to breast and uterine enlargement weight of the fetus, amount of amniotic fluid, size of the placenta, her own increase in total body fluid and an increase in storage of proteins, fats and minerals. The increase in weight can result in lower back problems. The uterus relaxes, the pulmonary values increase there can be other problems as the uterus enlarges.
Birth
At first the uterus has light contractions but near the end of pregnancy the contractions may become stronger and more frequent. The uterine contractions are induced by a stretching of the cervix that also brings the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland. Prior to the first stage of parturition which is the process of giving birth to an offspring there can be a bloody show caused by expulsion of a mucous plug from the cervical canal.
Stage 1
The cervical canal slowly disappears as the lower part of the uterus is pulled upward towards the baby’s head. The baby’s head then acts as a wedge to assist cervical dilation.
Stage 2
The uterine contractions occur every 1-2 min and last about 1 min. They are followed by the desire to push and bear down. As the baby’s head is into the vagina the desire to push increases. When the head get to the exterior it turns so the back of the head is uppermost. As soon as the head is out, the doctor may hold the head and guide it downward while one shoulder and then the other emerges. Once the baby’s breathing is normal the umbilical cord is cut and tied severing the child from the placenta.
Stage 3
The placenta or afterbirth is delivered during the third stage of parturition. 15 minutes after delivery the uterine muscular contraction shrink the uterus and dislodge the placenta. The placenta then is expelled into the vagina.

Development does not cease once birth has occurred. It continues through the stages of life. Infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Aging contributes to progressive changes that contribute to an increased risk of infirmity, disease and death. Research indicates that aging has a genetic basis.

Embronic and Fetal Development Online Lab

2008-07-23T15:42:00.000-07:00

One month: The baby is an embryo that contains two layers of cells

Two months: A this point the baby is about the size of a kidney bean and is constantly moving. The baby now has slightly webbed fingers.

Three months: The baby is about 3 inches long and weighs about an ounce and the fingerprints are now showing.

Four months: The baby is about 5 inches long and weighs about 5 ounces. The skelton is starting to get hard and changing from rubbery cartilage to bone.

Five months: The baby is about 10 inches long if you streach out its feet also by now the eyebrows and eyelids are showing.

Six months: The baby now weighs about a pound and half and the wrinkled skin is starting to become smooth and is putting on baby fat.

Seven months: The baby is 3 pounds and is about 15 inches long. The baby can also now open their eyes and follow light.

Eight months: The baby weighs 4 3/4 it becomes rounder and its lungs are well developed.

Nine months: At this point the baby weighs about 7 pounds and is more then 19 inches but these numbers can be different in every baby.

Unit 3 Build a Moveable Limb

2008-07-11T12:51:00.001-07:00

A & B: A represents the muscle relaxed and B represents the muscle flexed.

The parts of the elbows

1 Biceps Muscle

2 Biceps Tendon

3 Ulnar Nerve

4 Humerus

5 Radius

6 Ulna

7 Posterior Band

8 Anterior Band

9 Intermediate Band

10 Annular Ligament of Radius

Unit 3 Lab Project: Build A Moveable Limb

2008-07-10T22:54:00.000-07:00

Introduction: This is a model of a moveable elbow built out of construction paper and metal brads that connected the bicep to the anterior band. The parts that are found in the model are bones, tendons, and muscles. Each one of these allow it to bend and contract.

Conclusion: By building a model I have learned about how bones, tendons and muscles allow our bodies to move a certain way. In certain different parts of the body bones, muscles and tendons can aid in supporting and protecting our bodies. The elbow works simular to a hinge because it bends and straightens. All the nerves that travel down the arm pass through the elbow and these nerves carry signals from the brain to the muscles and this makes the arm move. The elbow is what provides stability as we position our forarm to use our hand.

Online lab: leeches

2008-07-10T22:27:00.000-07:00

What is the electrode measuring? It is a concept that deals with voltages.

Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments? They are relatively small in number and have a large size of neurons.

What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron? A sensory neuron is a nerve cell that transmits nerve impulses to the cns after a sensory receptor has been stimulated. A motor neuron conducts impulses away from the cns and innervates effectors.

Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain? No they do not feel pain because they do not have the necessary brain systems that vertebrates have in order to process pain.

What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab? Just learning about neurophysiology in all because i had never learned anything about them before.

Anything you found confusing or didnt like about the lab? Just trying to figure out the lab at first was a little confusing.

Online Lab: Muscle Function

2008-07-10T13:35:00.000-07:00

Muscle Functions:

1. Place your fingers along the angle of your jaw just in front of your ear. Grit your teeth and observe what happens to the hardness of the muscles in your check. They move up towards your ear and protrude out.

2. With the thumb and little finger of one hand, span the opposite arm's biceps from the elbow to as close to the shoulder as possible. Bend the arm and observe the change in the length of the muscle. The muscle goes from lose to tight.

3. Wrap a strip of paper around your upper arm and mark the circumference of your arm on the paper. Clench your fist tightly and mark the new circumference on the paper. Observe what happens to the circumference of the muscle. The muscle gets bigger.

Effects of Temperature on muscle action:
Normal: 48
Ice Water: 29

Effect of fatigue on muscle action
# of squeezes in 20 seconds
1 40
2 41
3 42
4 32
5 31
6 31
7 22
8 22
9 19
10 12

What are the three changes you observed in a muscle while it is working? The three changes that I notice by doing the lab is that it once your mucsle gets tired it unable to go as fast as it did.

What effects did the cold temperature have on the action of your hand muscle? When your hand muscle get colder it makes it harder for it to go as fast as it did when it was at your normal temperature.

Ethical Issue 3 Exercise

2008-07-10T13:13:00.000-07:00

I feel that exercise is the most important thing that you can do. By exercising it helps you stay young and maintain a healthier body. I played sports all through high school and my first two years of college. So by taking part in different types of sports and being in a weight training class, I learned a great deal about exercise and how it benefits me. While taking part in exercise I find that it has increased my self confidence. When I’m feeling stressed working out is the best way to release it. I believe the high increase of child obesity in the United States is due to the lack of education of how exercise will help you maintain a healthier body weight. If every child would take part in some form of exercise everyday, they would loose weight and therefore wouldn’t be at such a health risk. . We can better America by making a gym class mandatory throughout grade school and high school. For most kids the only time that they actually get any type of exercise is at school through a weight or gym class. When gym class was removed from most schools as a required class, this is when the child obesity rate started to increase at an alarming rate. Parents and guardians also need to enforce that their children shut off the television and video games and do some kind of exercise instead.

Compendium Review Chapters 13, 14

2008-07-10T13:09:00.000-07:00

Chapter 13
Nervous system has two major divisions
Central nervous system contains the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system contains nerves. The nerves lie outside of the central nervous system.
The nervous system has three specific functions
nervous system receives sensory input
the CNS performs integration
the CNS generates motor output.

Nervous tissue contains two types of cell neurons which are cells that transmit nerve impulses between parts of the nervous system. The second type is Neuroglia that support and nourish neurons.
Neuron structure there is 3 different types
Sensory neuron takes messages from sensory preceptor to the central nervous system.
Interneuron lie entirely with the CNS they can input from sensory neurons along with other interneuron in the CNS.
Motor neuron takes impulses away from the CNS to muscle fibers or glands.
Nerve impulses have information within the nervous system. It is studied by using excised axons and voltmeter to measure voltage.
A terminal that lies very close to a dendrite or the cell body of another neuron. The region of close space is called a synapse. At this space there is a small gap called a synaptic clerk that separates the sending from the receiving neurons.
The central nervous system
The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system. It is where sensory information is received and motor control is initiated. Both the spinal cord and the brain are protected by bone, the brain is enclosed by the skull and the spinal cord is surrounded by vertebrae. Along with bone they are also protected by membranes known as meninges. Then the spaces between the meninges is filled with fluid called cerebrospinal fluid which cushions and protects the central nervous system.
The spinal cord extends from the base of the brain through a large opening in the skull and into the vertebral canal formed by openings in the vertebrae.
The functions of the spinal cord
It is a mean of communication between the brain and the peripheral nerves that leave the cord. When someone touches you sensory receptors generate nerve impulses that pass through sensory fibers to the spinal cord and up ascending tracts to the brain.
The brain
The goal of modern neuroscience is to better understand the structures and functions of the working brain. This will help in preventing or correcting the thousands of mental disorders that affect many people. There are many parts in the brain that have different functions that help it.
The peripheral nervous system your eyes send messages by way of a cranial nerve to the brain, allowing you to read a page and your brain is directing the muscles in your fingers to turn the page by way of the spinal cord and a spinal nerve.
Humans have 12 points of cranial nerves attached to the brain cranial nerves are largely concerned with the head, neck, and facial regions of the body.
The nerves in the somatic system serve the skin, skeletal muscles and tendons and it contains nerves that take sensory information from external sensory receptors to the CNS and motor commands away from the CNS to the skeletal muscles.
Autonomic system regulates the activity of cardiac and smooth muscles and glands. The system is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Activation of these two systems causes opposite response.
Drug abuse has an affect on the nervous system and can affect your mood and or emotional state. These drugs have two affects such as on the limbic systems, and they promote or decrease the action of a particular neurotransmitter.
Stimulants are drugs that increase the likelihood of neuron excitation and depressants decrease the likelihood of excitation. Some of the names of these drugs that affect the body in different ways are alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin and marijuana.

Chapter 14
Sensory receptors are dendrites that detect a certain type of stimuli
Exteroceptors are sensory receptors that detect stimuli from outside the body, such as those that result in taste, smell, vision, hearing and equilibrium
Interceptors receive stimuli from inside the body
Different types of sensory receptors
Chemoreceptor’s respond to chemical substances
Pain receptors are types of chemoreceptor’s they are naked dendrites that respond to chemical released by drainage tissues
Pain receptors alert us to possible danger.
Photoreceptors respond to light energy. Our eyes have photo rectors that are sensitive to light rays and provide us with a sense of vision. Stimulation to photoreceptors also known as rod cells affect black and white vision and stimulation of the photoreceptors known as cone cells results in color vision.
Mechanoreceptors are stimulated by mechanical forces which have to do with some kind of pressure. When we hear airborne sound waves are changed into fluid borne pressure waves that are detected by mechanoreceptors in the inner ear.
Sensory receptors respond to environmental stimuli by having nerve impulses. When they reach the cerebral cortex of the brain, sensation which is conscious perception of stimuli occurs. All sensory receptors require nerve impulses and the sensation that results depends on the part of the brain receiving the nerve impulses.
Proprioceptors and cutaneous receptors
Proprioceptors are mechanoreceptors that affect reflex action that maintain muscle tone and thereby the body’s equilibrium and posture. This helps us know the position of our limbs in space by detecting the degree of muscle relaxation, the stretch of tendons and fine movement of ligaments.
Cutaneous receptors
The two layers of the skin are the Epidermis and the Dermis. Epidermis is stratified squanmous epithelium in which cells become keratinized as they raise to the surface. Dermis is a thick connective tissue layer. The dermis contains cutaneous receptors that make the skin sensitive to touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. These types of cutaneous are sensitive to fine touch. Two types are sensitive to pressure.
Sense of taste and smell
Sense of taste in adults happens by the 3,000 taste buds that are located mostly on the tongue. There are four types of taste: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. Then a fifth taste bud might exist which is called umami. This is for certain flavors of cheese, beef broth, and some seafood. Taste buds are located in certain places for certain tastes. The tip of the tongue is most sensitive to sweet tastes making it especially pleasurable to lick ice cream cones. The margins of the tongue are most sensitive to salty and sour taste and the rear of the tongue to bitter tastes. The brain receives taste by messages.
Sense of smell
80% - 90% of what we taste actually is due to the sense of smell. Our sense of smell depends on between 10 and 20 million olfactory cells located high in the roof of the nasal cavity. How the brain receives odor information. Every odor contains odor molecules this activates a characteristic combination of receptor proteins. An odor signature is figured by which neurons are stimulated. Once the neurons have communicated this information to the olfactory tract then it is sent to the olfactory areas of the cerebral cortex. That’s how we know that we have smelled.
Sense of vision
A lot of processing of stimuli occurs in the eyes before nerve impulses are transferred to the brain. Researchers believe that about a third of the cerebral cortex takes part on processing visual information. There are three different layers that contain many things within the eyes.
Sense of hearing has two functions: hearing and balance. The functions for both of these are found in the inner ear and each consists of hair cells. These hair cells are sensitive to mechanical stimulation.
These are three divisions of the ear: the outer that has the exterior flap called the pinna and the auditory canal where the opening is lined with fine hairs and sweat glands. Located in the upper wall of the canal are modified sweat glands that secrete earwax.
The middle ear begins at the tympanic membrane but ends at the bony wall that has two small openings covered by membrane. An auditory tube permits equalization of air pressure. As this happens we sometimes hear our ears pop. The outer and middle ear has air while the inner has fluid.
The vestibular nerve takes nerve impulses to the brain stem and cerebellum. As it communicates with the brain, the vestibular nerve helps us achieve equilibrium also other structures of the body are involved. Proprioceptors are necessary in maintaining equilibrium and vision provides helpful imput the brain can act upon.

Compendium Review Chapter 11, 12

2008-07-10T13:04:00.000-07:00

Chapter 11
The skeletal system helps support the body, protect soft body parts, produces blood cells, stores mineral and fat. It also permits flexible body movement. Compact bones are really organized and have tubular units called osteons. Bone cells called osteocytes are tiny chambers. The matrix fills the space between. Spongy bones are very different from compact bones; spongy bones are lighter but are designed for strength. Spaces between the spongy bones are filled with red bone marrow. Red bone marrow is a special kind of tissue that produces all different types of blood cells. Cartilage isn’t as strong as bones but it is a lot more flexible. It has no nerves, which is why it’s great for padding joints where stress movement are harder.
Three different types of cartilage: Hyaline, which is firm and kind of flexible. Fibeocartilage is stronger than hyaline cartilage because the matrix contains wide rows of thick, collagen fibers. Elastic cartilage is more flexible than hyaline cartilage because the matrix contains mostly elastic fiber.
There are many different types of cells that are involved in bone growth, remodeling and repairing. Osteoblasts are bone forming cells. They secrete organic matrix of bone and promote the deposition of calcium salts into the matrix. Osteocytes are mature bone cells formed from osteoblasts and they maintain the structure of bone.
Hormones have a major involvement in bone growth. A hormone is a chemical messenger, produced by one part of the body that acts on a different part of the body. Vitamin D is converted to a hormone that acts on the intestinal tract and it’s chief function is intestinal absorption of calcium. Growth hormone stimulates bone growth, however it will be somewhat ineffective if the metabolic activity of cells in not promoted. Particularly the thyroid hormone promotes the metabolic activity of cells. Due to an increased level of sex hormones, adolescents usually experience a dramatic increase in height. This is called the growth spurt.
Bones repairing after they break or fracture is very important and takes place over several months. Here are the four steps.
Hematoma: which is a mass of clotted blood. Blood escapes from ruptured blood vessels after the fracture and forms a hematoma in the space between the broken bones. This happens within 6-8 hours after the fracture.
Fibrocartilaginous callus: Tissue repair begins and the fibro cartilaginous fills the space between the ends of the bone. This goes on for about three weeks after the bone is broken.
Bony callus: spongy bone is converting to fibro cartilage callus to a bony callus. This then joins the broken bones together and lasts about three to four months.
Remodeling: Osteoblasts build new compact bone and osteoclasts absorb the spongy bone.
Bones of the skeleton are classified where they occur in the axial or appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column and rib cage. The axial skeleton lies in the midline of the body. The appendicular skeleton is portion forming the pectoral girdles and upper extremities and the pelvic girdle and lower extremities. Included in the appendicular skeleton bones are the shoulder, hip, arm, left and right pectoral girdles.
The skull is formed by brain case and facial bones.
Hyoid bones are attached to the temporal bones by muscles and ligaments.
The Vertebral column has 4 curvatures that aid in more resilience and strength for the upright position.
The rib cage contains the thoracic vertebral, the rib and their associated cartilages and sternum.
In the appendicular it holds pectoral and pelvic girdles and their limbs. These are bones from the shoulder and the hip.

Chapter 12
The different types of muscles that are in the muscular system are smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and skeletal muscles.
Smooth has a single nucleus or the cells are arranged in parallel lines. These muscles are located in the walls of hollow internal organs that make its wall contract.
Cardiac muscles form a wall around the heart. The fibers in it allow it to interlock at the intercalated disks.
Skeletal muscles have fibers that are tubular. These make the skeletal muscles attach to the skeleton. These muscles can be very long and run the length of the muscles.
The functions of the skeleton muscles:
Skeletal muscles support the body, make bones move, help maintain a constant body temperature, contraction assists movement in cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels and help protect internal organs and stabilize joints.
We have different types of muscles for different types of exercise. For those different activities we have muscles known as fast and slow twitch muscles. Fast twitch muscles are most helpful in sports such as sprinting, weight lifting, swinging a golf club, or throwing a shot. Fast twitch muscles are much lighter then slow twitch muscles because they lack mitochondria; they also have little or no myoglobin and have fewer blood vessels than slow twitch.
Slow twitch muscles are mostly used in sports such as long distance running, biking, jogging and swimming. These muscles tire only when they run out of energy. The reason they are so much darker then fast twitch is because they have manly mitochondria.

Exercise Physiology Charts & Graphs

2008-06-28T00:36:00.001-07:00

Self and Unit Evaluation

2008-06-28T00:12:00.000-07:00

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE
What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? The three assignments that I’m most proud of are the compendium reviews and the ethical issue.

What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? The two aspects that I feel could have used a lot more time would be the lab project and the online blood pressure lab.

What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? My overall grade for this unit should be a low B. I feel like I have worked hard on each assignment and have done it to the best of my ability.

How could I perform better in the next unit? To help me do better next time, I should get more of the unit covered in the first week. I was really sick with the flu for a week and couldn't hardly get out of bed so was hard to do my assignments.

REGARDING THE UNIT
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? The moment that I felt most engaged in the unit was when I was doing the lab even though I’m not sure if the results are right.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? During the online blood pressure lab because I wasn’t too sure what all I had to do. I also couldn’t get the table and graph emailed to myself.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? Sometimes it is nice to be in a classroom instead of online trying to figure out everything on your own. Not knowing if you are actually doing it right.

What about this unit surprised you the most? The most surprising thing about this unit was learning about the different places your heart pumps blood to and just how important that is to us.

Materials & Methods for lab 2

2008-06-27T23:58:00.000-07:00

Picture 1: Measuring Blood pressure and pulse

Picture 2: Taking respiration rate

Picture 3: Doing activity 3 Brushing my teeth

Picture 4: Doing activity 2 Jumping Jacks

Picture 5: Doing activity 1 Walking

Exercise Physiology

2008-06-27T23:21:00.000-07:00

Unit 2 lab project
Introduction: Measured my pulse, respiration rate, and blood pressure at rest and then after doing certain activities that I picked out. Before getting started I measured all of these before I even started doing my activities. In order to measure each one of these I used an electronic blood pressure cuff that gave me the systolic, diastolic and then the pulse. To find the respiration rate I counted the number of respirations in half a minute and then multiplied by two.

Hypothesis: Before even starting this experiment I thought that all my metabolic measurements would greatly increase especially doing jumping jacks and walking.

Analysis of data: From each activity the pulse, respiration, and blood pressure slightly went up in most cases. However I thought the data would have increased a lot more then they did. As I took my respiration rate after the activities the beat was stronger and it was a lot easier for me to count.

Problems with your data or technique: Because the levels didnt go up as much as I thought they would. I thought something was wrong with the electronic blood pressure cuff so I redid some of the activities and redid the readings but nothing changed.

Conclusion: The harder an activity that you do the harder your body has to work to keep your blood pumping and helps keep your body temperature stable. Therefore as long as the circulatory system is working correctly it keeps the metabolic parameters stable even when doing exercise.

Ethical Issue 2

2008-06-27T23:19:00.000-07:00

We start eating at a very young age and depend on our parents to feed us the things that will help us grow and mature. But as we get older we get to decide what we want to put into our mouths. I believe that picking the foods that we pick is mainly a result of our culture. For instance in my house every meal that we have has a main course of meat and mostly beef. The sides are normally some kind of vegetable like corn, green beans, and the other side is potatoes, rice or something kind of like that. The reason that my parents are used to eating these foods is their parents fed them the same kind of foods. Both of my parents grew up on the farm so they were raised eating meats and corn. They raised and butchered their own beef and the vegetables were grown in their garden.
As we have noticed with having so many cultures in the United States it has brought many different kind of foods with it. So by living in the US we have been able to experience and try many different types of foods that we might not have had a chance other wise. Where I live I’m able to eat different types of foods like Mexican, Native American, and Chinese. I also have seen many different practices out there for the different types of food. So I feel that the food that we put in our mouth from day to day has a big part of what type of culture we are from.

Blood Pressure Lab

2008-06-27T00:39:00.000-07:00

The blood pressure test ranged from females age 11-54 and males 11-54. You would pick which age group you wanted to choose from and then you would cheek there blood pressure. There were a couple things that were listed on there chart as the reason they had high blood pressure. The reason we lack of exercise, family history of hypertension, high salt diet and alcohol consumption. The higher in age we got it was mostly high due to the lack in exercise. So what is blood pressure exactly? Blood pressure refers to the force by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels and constitutes one of the principal vital signs. The pressure decreases as blood moves through arteries, arteries, arterioles, capillaries and veins. Blood pressure usually is about arterial pressure which is pressure in the large arteries, and arteries. This is the blood that takes the blood away from the heart

Pulse: In this lab we also learned how to take a pulse. In order to take a pulse this is what you have to do. The artery on the thumb side of the wrist. Touch this area lightly until you feel your pulse or heart beat. Count the amount of heart beats for 15 seconds and multiply by four this will give you your daily pulse rate. This pulse is different from everybody is only the indicator of your resting plus rate. Normal for me 72 beats per min. For women 80 beats per min either side of those rates fall into the normal range

A Day Of Food

2008-06-27T00:37:00.001-07:00

Compendium Review Chapter 8

2008-06-27T00:30:00.000-07:00

The gastrointestinal tract is where all the tubes are located for the organs of the digestive system. Some molecules are too big so they can’t get across the plasma membrane. The purpose is to break down these macromolecules to their unit molecules. Mainly sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, can cross plasma membranes. Our food also has water salts, vitamins, and minerals that helps our body function normally.

These functions are necessary to our digestive process:

Ingestion: happens when the growth lets food in and can have something to do with our diet. That’s why learning good nutrition is highly important.

Digestive: mechanical or chemical mechanical is when food is divided into pieces that might be used by the digestion enzymes. Chewing our food good before swallowing it helps with digestion. A chemical process begins in the mouth and isn’t complete until food reaches the small intestine.

Absorption: when unit molecules are produced by digestion and cross the wall of the GI tract then enter the cells that are lining the tract. After that the nutrients enter the blood to be delivered to the cells.

Elimination: molecules that can’t be digested have to be eliminated. It is removed from the anus in the form of feces which is defecation.

The four layers of the digestive tract

First layer of the wall is called the mucosa also known as the mucous membrane. It produces mucus which protects the walls from the digestive enzymes. In the mouth, stomach and small intestine mucosa has glands that secrete or receive digestive enzymes.. Divertulosis is a portion of mucous that has pushed through and formed layers so pouches can be created.

Second layer the GI wall is called the sub mucosa. This layer contains loose connective tissue that contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessel, and nerves. All these vessels will carry the nutrients that were absorbed by the mucosa.

Third layer is the muscular which contains two layers of smooth muscle. Inner layer encircles the tract. The outer layer lies in the same way as the tract. When these muscles contract it accounts for movements of digestion of food from the esophagus to the anus.

Fourth layer of the tract is serosa. The secrete contains a serous fluid that is a part of the peritoneum, which is the inner lining of the abdominal cavity.

First part of digestive tract
The first couple parts of the digestive tract are the mouth, pharynx, and the esophagus.

Mouth: Mechanical digestion occurs when the teeth chew food into little pieces in order to swallow them. The first two years of life we have 20 smaller teeth also known as our baby teeth. Then we eventually get 32 adult teeth. In addition to the 32 teeth you also might gain a third pair of molars or also called wisdom teeth. These don’t always come through so then they might have to be removed. Each tooth has two main divisions a crown and a root.

Crown: layer of enamel with a hard outer covering of calcium, dentin a thick layer of bone like material, an inner pulp that contains nerves and blood vessels.

Root: dentin and pulp found in the root.
The pharynx and the esophagus
Mouth and nasal passages lead to a cavity which is the pharynx. Food passage and air passage cross the pharynx because the trachea is an anterior to the esophagus.

Esophagus: a long narrow tube that takes our food to the stomach.
The stomach and small intestine

The stomach: is a thick J shaped wall that is the left side beneath the diaphragm. The stomach stores food and.initiates the digestion of protein and controls the movement of chime into the small intestines. The stomach normally empties in 2-6 hours. When food leaves it is a think, soupy liquid which is called chime. That liquid then enters the small intestine in small amounts.

Small intestine: is small in diameter but big in length. It is about 18 feet long and contains enzymes to digest different types of foods. These foods are primarily carbohydrates, proteins and fats. The wall of the small intestine absorbs molecules namely sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, that are products of the digestive process. Nutrients are absorbed into the vessels of a villus which contains blood capillaries and small lymphatic capillary. Vessels carry fluid to the cardiovascular system then sugars, amino acids enter blood capillaries of villus. Glycerol and fatty acids enter the epithelial cells of villus and with each cell are joined packaged as lipoprotein droplets called chylomicreins which enter a lacteal. After nutrients are absorbed they are the taken to the cells of the body by the bloodstream.
Three accessory organs and regulation of secretions

Pancreas: fish shaped spongy, grayish pink organ that goes across the back of the abdomen which is behind the stomach. It is also an endocrine gland that secretes the hormone in insulin into the blood. This works when blood glucose levels rise but the pancreas produces a lot of insulin so that the level comes down.
The liver is the largest major metabolic gland in our bodies and is mainly in the upper right sections of the abdominal cavity under the diaphragm. It contains about 100,000 lobuis that are structural and functional units. Liver is a storage unit and it removes iron and vitamins A,D,E,K and B 12 from the blood and stores theandm.

The liver produces glucose in order for food to get broken down.
The large intestine has the cecum, the colon, the rectum and the anal canal. Functions of the large intestine are to absorb water that is really valuable for use. It prevents the body from dehydration and absorbs vitamins that are produced by bacteria.

Classes of nutrients
Carbohydrates: products such as refined grains
Proteins: vegetables, seeds and nuts also grains supply us with amino acids
Lipids: oils containing fatty acids
Corn and sunflower oil are high in polyunsaturated fatty acids

Compendium Review Chapters 5,6,7

2008-06-27T00:21:00.000-07:00

Chapter 5

Cardiovascular system
Consists of the heart that pumps the blood, and the blood vessels which help with the blood flow. With every beat of the heart blood is sent into the blood vessels and always contained within blood vessels. This helps because blood removes waste products from tissue fluid. In order for cells to continue there existence it has to bring tissue fluid, oxygen and nutrients

Lymphatic system: is assistant to cardiovascular because its vessels collect excess tissue fluid and then return it to the cardiovascular system.
The different kinds of blood vessels

The arteries: has three layers, inner most layer is a thin layer of cells which are called endothelium. Middle layer is relatively thick layer of smooth muscle and elastic tissue and the outer layer is connective tissue. The walls of the artery gives support when blood enters under pressure. The elastic tissue helps an artery to expand to absorb the pressure.

The capillaries: Arterioles branch into capillaries. Capillary is an extremely narrow microscopic tube with a wall made of only endothelium with a basement membrane. Total surface area in humans is about 6,300 square meters of capillaries as they are in every part of the body.

The veins: venules are small veins that drain blood from capillaries and then join to form a vein. Have the same three layers as arteries but less smooth muscle in the middle layer and less connective tissue in the outer layer of veins. The outer layer allows blood to flow only towards the heart when open and prevents its blood from going back when closed.

The heart is cone shaped muscular organ. To get the approximate size of the heart make a fist then clasp the fist with your opposite hand. A cardiac cycle is each heart beat. The heart contrasts or beats about 70 times a minute and each beat lasts about .85 seconds. Normal adult rate at rest can vary from 60 to 80 beats per minute. The lub sound happens when increasing pressure of blood inside ventricle forces the cusps of the AV value to slam shut. The dup sound happens when the ventricles relax and blood in the arteries pushes back, causing the semi lunar value to close.

Pulse normally indicates the heart rate. The pulse rate is usually 70 beats per minute but can vary between 60 and 80 beats per minute.

Blood pressure: pressure of blood against the wall of the blood vessel. A sphygmonanometer is used to measure blood pressure. Normal resting blood pressure for a young adult is said to be 120 mm mercury over 30

Chapter 6 Blood
Human bodies contain about 5 liters of blood. Three categories blood fall into: transport, defense and regulation. Blood delivers oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from digestive tract to the tissue when an exchange takes place. Blood defends the body against invasion by pathogens in many ways. Some blood cells are capable of phagocytizing and destroying pathogens others produce and secrete antibodies into blood. Blood regulatory functions help regulate our body temperature by picking up heat from muscles and transporting it to the body.

Red blood cells are small biconcave aisles that lack a nucleus when mature. There are 4-6 million red blood cells per mm of the whole body.

White blood cells are different from red blood cells they are longer and have a nucleus. White blood cells lack hemoglobin and are translucent unless stained. Only 5,000-11,000 per mm of blood. White blood cells fight infection and are a big part to the immune system. Two types of white blood cells: granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes.

Chapter 7
Bacteria: single cell prokaryotes and they don’t have a nucleus. The three different shapes of bacteria anatomy are: bacillus has a rod shape; coccus has a spherical shape and a spirillum is curved. Bacteria have a cell wall that has unique amino disaccharide. Bacteria independent cells that metabolically competent and they reproduce by binary fission. The single chromosome attached to the plasma membrane is copied. Then as the cell gets bigger the chromosomes separate and the new formed plasma membrane and cell wall separate the cell into two cells.

Viruses: are the gap between the living and the nonliving. Outside a host viruses are mainly chemicals that store themselves. With the chance they will replicate inside cells and during this certain period they seem to be alive. Viruses are a cellular which means they aren’t composed of cells. A virus particle is about four times smaller then that of bacteria. Viruses always have two parts an outer capsid composed of protein and an inner core of nucleic acid.

The body puts up many barriers the entry to these barriers can be physical and chemical that serve as first line of defense against an infection.
Skin and mucous membrane, chemical barriers, resident bacteria.
The second line of defense is by the inflammatory response.
When all these have failed to prevent an infection we have specific defenses that can come into play. Which are either B cells or T cells.

The web activities deal with the different types of things from the chapters for instance phagocytosis, immunity, and HIV & AIDS. There were different types of videos and web sites for each one of the activities. By having videos and a different look from the book you can get a different look at things and gain more knowledge.

Self and Unit Evaluation

2008-06-13T12:37:00.000-07:00

Regarding My Own Performance:

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? The three aspects of the assignment that I’m most proud of are the making of the cell, and then posting all my pictures of the finished cell. The other two things that I’m also proud of are the online lab assignments and then adding my finish lab write ups and pictures into my blog.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? The two assignments that I could have used a little more time on would be the Compendium Review.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? I think I worked extremely hard on this unit and trying to figure out how to add all of it into a blog was really challenging for me. I stayed up many nights late to try and get all my assignments done and blogged. I feel that I should get a passing grade for my attempts at doing everything and hopefully finally getting everything blogged right. But all in all I’m very happy with the way things turned out and I have learned a great deal about cells and genetics.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit? Now that I have my book and won't have to wait for it, I plan on getting started a lot earlier so that I don’t have to rush and stress to get assignments done on the due date.

Regarding the Unit:

1. At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? The time where I felt most engaged with the unit would have to be when I started building my working cell. It was very hands on so being able to see the parts of the cell in a different way just made me understand everything about a cell and how everything works just that much better.

2. At what moment did you feel most distanced from the course? I felt most distanced from the unit when I had to figure how to put all the work that I did into a blog. To be really honest the blogging part really stressed me out because I wasn’t sure if I was doing what I needed to do.

3. What action that anyone took during this unit did you find most affirming and helpful? When the teacher actually explained to me how I had to post all my assignments into the same blog that is when I finally understood what I was doing.

4. What action that anyone took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? Just the whole blogging thing again but I have a better understanding of it now.

5. What about this unit surprised you the most? I think learning about the different genotypes and phenotypes, also learning about the genetic disorders. These were the most interesting parts of the unit for me.

Ethical Issue: Cloning

2008-06-13T12:26:00.000-07:00

Cloning is to produce a copy of or imitate. There are three different types of cloning; Therapeutic Cloning, Reproductive Cloning, and Recombinant DNA Technology or DNA Cloning. Therapeutic Cloning also known as embryo cloning is the producing of human embroyos for use in research. By harvesting stem cells that can later be used to study the development so that they are able to treat diseases. Reproductive Cloning is used to make an animal that has the same nuclear DNA as another animal either an animal in the past or one in the present. Recombinant DNA Technology or DNA Cloning is transfering DNA fragments from one organism to a self replicating genetic element.
Reproductive cloning is expensive and highly inefficient. Cloned animals have compromised immune functions. Higher rates of infection and other disorders have resulted with cloned animals. Clones have been known to die mysteriously and haven't been known to have long lifes. Of the mammals that have been cloned 30% of them were born with large offspring syndrome.
Cloning humans was said to be highly unethical and potentially dangerous by scientists and physicans. Cloned embryos are very likely to be born with birth defects. With animals it is different from humans because we dont have to worry about their mental develpment. Unlike humans where we thrive on mental develpment to function in todays society.
Many people have their own opinions on this issue. Some people might think that cloning will benefit us in the future while others believe it is unethical. Because there is such strong opinions, some for cloning and some against cloning, I dont believe that we will ever fully resolve the issue of weather we should clone humans.

Compendium Review 1-4

2008-06-13T12:22:00.000-07:00

Outline
Chapters 1,2,3,4

Chapter 1
A. The characteristics of life
1. Acquiring materials and energy
2. Reproducing
3. Growing and Developing
4. Adapting to our environment
5. Life is an evolution

Chapter 2
A. Molecules along with atoms
B. Lipids
1. Oils and fats
2. Dietary Fats

Chapter 3
A. What is a cell?
1. Different parts of a cell
2. Roles they play

Chapter 4
A.Types of tissues
1. Four types of tissues
2. Details about each tissue

Chapters one through four, talked about many important things that has an affect on the human body. There were many important keys in this chapter about how you classify a living form from a non living thing. By taking on these forms you are classified as being a living object. All of them are very important to an individual such as growing and developing such as from a childhood to adolescent to then becoming an adult. Then reproducing creating a copy of two individuals and then insure that their own kind will continue. Another thing that makes us human is the ability that our body has to adapt to his or her environment. The most important one is that we change through time which is called evolution. With changing we are allowing ourselves to live longer lives then those who stay unchanged. Evolution has been going on since the beginning of life and will continue as long as life exists.In chapter two the book brings up water molecules along with atoms and isotopes. The best part was learning about the different oils and fats that you put in your body. I found out that fats are used for many different things in your body like long term storage, insulates against heat loss, and then forms a protected cushion around major organs. Then in the book it shows you an example of a food label and explains what calories you should intake. Also food manufacturers are required to list the amount of trans fat greater then that of .5 g in the nutrition for food.Chapter three is about what a cell is and shows many different pictures of what one looks like. In the pictures it shows many elements that help keep the cell functioning. An animal cell is different from that of a plant cell. Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic both have a plasma membrane which is the outer membrane that controls what goes in and out. Proteins play a major role in this as they decide what can enter and what can’t. All the cells also have cytoplasm, which is a semi fluid in the medium that has water and other types of molecules in it. Everything that is in a cell has an important role that allows certain functions within the body.The last chapter talked about the most important parts to the body, the four types of tissues, cell junctions and organ systems. The part that I was most interested in was the different types of epithelia and where it is found in humans. It is used for lining in lungs, blood vessels, small intestines, trachea, nose and the mouth. The reason why it is so important is because it protects, and it absorbs molecules and nutrients.

Compendium Review 18-21

2008-06-13T12:20:00.000-07:00

Outline

Chapter 18
A. Chromosomes and the cell cycle
1. sex chromosomes
2. Mitosis
3. Phases of Mitosis
4. Meiosis
5. Two stages of Meiosis

Chapter 19
A. Cancer Cells
1. Different Types
2. Causes of Cancer

Chapter 20
A. Genetic Inheritance
B. DNA, RNA
Chapter 21
A.DNA Fingerprinting
1. How it has helped solve crimes

Through out chapters 18 through 21 the book discussed many different things from chromosomes of a cell to that of genetics and inheritance. A lot of the chapters in this section are important to understand because of genetic disorders to cancer and how it can be heredity. In the first chapter it discusses how many chromosomes a person has and what sex chromosomes a male has that is different from a female. Males have X and Y sex chromosomes and females have two X chromosomes. Then later it goes into detail about mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis it has the same number and kind of chromosomes as the cell that later divides it and also has four different stages that the cell goes through. The four different stages are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telephone each phase goes right onto the other without any interruption. Meiosis involves two divisions which involve four daughter cells and then each daughter cell has a different chromosome that means half as many parents’ cells are involved. The two different cell divisions of meiosis is meiosis l and meiosis ll. So what is the difference from mitosis and meiosis? Mitosis is the most common out of the two because it takes part in all tissues during growth and repair. While Meiosis only happens in the reproductive organs and then produces the gametes (the sex cell, the egg or a sperm).Chapter 19 is about cancer cells which was very interesting because so many people die each year from this. The cancer cell keeps on dividing for an unlimited number of times unlike other cells that divide about 60-70 times and then they stop dividing and die off. What are the different types of cancers? Cancers of the blood are classified as leukemia, and then there are cancers in the muscle and connective tissue which are known as sarcomas. Cancers of the epithelial tissues are called Carcinomas which includes skin, breast, liver, pancreas, intestines, lung, prostate and thyroid. Cancers of the lymphatic tissue are lymphomas. The causes of cancer are not fully understood however the environment plays a role in risk factors. Heredity plays the biggest role in cancer especially certain types. Genes that you inherit can play a big role in what types of cancers are common in your family. Other causes that you might not expect are ultraviolet radiation in sunlight and tanning lights which can increase the risks of skin cancer. Organic chemicals such as tobacco smoke, pollutants and viruses can increase the risk factor.Chapters 20 talks about genetic inheritance, DNA and RNA. It explains how genotypes and phenotypes form. Each gene can figure out by the genes that your parents have which genes you will inherit from each of your parents. How some people have a widow’s peak while others might just have a straight hairline. To those individuals that have thousands of freckles and those of us that have no freckles. Other things that they are now being able to find out is if your child could possible end up having a genetic disorder before birth.Chapter 21 discusses a big change that has helped solve crimes and that being DNA testing. Cops are able to catch criminals that are involved in a crime because of DNA fingerprinting from blood or tissue at crime scenes. It also helps with identifying bodies. For instance it was a huge help in identifying the victims of the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States.

What Is Genetics??

2008-06-13T12:17:00.001-07:00

For the genetics lab we had to go to two different sites to work on labs. One was the dragon genetics lab and the other one was the punnett square. The dragon genetics explained the relationship between phenotypes and genotypes, and then you create physical changes in the dragons. Then I went and worked on the punnett square that took a lot more time for me to finally understand what I was suppose to do. You had to make a cross between the two flies, homozygous with long wings and homozygous with vestigial winged flies. By doing these labs it allowed you to get more familiar with genetic inheritance and how you receive the genes that you do.What is genetic inheritance? Inheritance is the traits that you receive from each one of your parents. Everyone has two copies of every gene, one inherited from the mother and one inherited from the father which is known as alleles. So if we inherit our genes from our parents they why don’t we look identical to our parents. It is because we inherit half of our father’s chromosomes and half of our mothers. There are important parts that you should know in order to understand how to do a punnett square and doing the genetics lab. During the dragon genetics lab you got to see recessive and dominant genes. Recessive inheritance is both parents have a normal gene and a faulty, recessive gene. Parents are not affected by the faulty gene, but their offspring is affected. A dominant inheritance means a parent has a single faulty dominant gene. This overpowers the counterpart and has an affect on the parent. When the parent is affected and mates with a non affected and non carrier mate the offspring could or could not be affected. Genotypes and phenotypes are genes of an individual. Phenotypes are an individual’s physical or observable characteristics.

The Parts and Functions of the Microscope...

2008-06-13T12:02:00.000-07:00

Does the microscope have any effect on today’s society? There are many different types of microscopes from inverted, forensic, industrial and these are just a few. Microscopes are an invaluable tool that is used in today’s research and education. It has helped major discovers in biology, medicine and materials research that are based on the advances that happens with the microscope. Without the microscopes there would probably be no new discovers on medical issues or even in the science field.The microscope has made many changes since the first discovery of it in 1590. It was the first light microscope that was invented by two Dutch spectacle makers, Zaccharias Janssen and his son Hans. They first discovered it by experimenting with several different lenses in a tube; they later found out that objects appear enlarged. But the major father of the microscope would have to be Anton Van Leeuwenhoek of Holland. He worked in a goods store which happened to have magnifying glasses; this helped him in building his microscopes. Anton was the first to discover many things with the microscope such as bacteria, yeast plants, the teeming life in a drop of water, and the blood corpuses in capillaries. During Aton's lifetime he used the lenses to do studies on varies things both living and none living and then later wrote his findings down. Fewer studies were then found on the microscope till the 19th century when the fine optical equipment was invented by Charles A Spencer. Later on in the 1930s the electron microscope was introduced, this helped a great deal. They allowed you to view objects as small as the diameter of an atom. Even though this is just a couple of findings with the microscope you can just see what a huge affect it has on today’s lives.There are many different parts to a microscope the most important thing is to figure out the different parts and then learn what each one does. When I had to learn all the different parts for my biology class, it was best for me to find a picture of the microscope and label the different parts. Each part is just important as the next, if you don’t do a certain thing right then you will not see the images, or will not be able to find it. These are the most important parts that you should know before you start using a microscope. The stage where you set your slides on it after you have chosen the slide you are going to be viewing. Condenser focus knob: this control is used to precisely adjust the vertical height of the condenser. Fine focus control allows for precise focusing of the slide. Objective Lenses are usually always consisting of 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x power. The shortest lens is the lowest power while the longest is the greatest power. Iris or Diaphragm is the function of transparency in the slide and the degree of contrast you desire. The last piece that is very important the ocular or also known as the eyepiece this contains two or more pieces to bring the images into focus for the eye to see. While dealing with a microscope it is best to look at the microscope while you adjust these certain pieces, choose the slide your going to look at, scanning the lens in place, specimen centered then open iris before doing this, and then start the stage at the top position. The next things are best to do while you are looking through the eye piece: use your focus, set your iris the degree of contrast you want to use, adjust the fine focus, and after you have set the fine focus center your image.

Unit One: Build A Cell (Stages of the Cell Being Completed)

2008-06-13T11:41:00.000-07:00

Introduction: This is a model of a cell that I created using items from around my house. Here are the items I used listed below and which part of the cell they represent.
Cell membrane- A blue plastic bowl and cut the lip off of it. Inside the bowl I filled it with sand to make it look like the cytoplasm.
Nucleus with nuclear membrane- Styrofoam ball that I cut in half, then cut a triangle out of it and painted it purple.
Endoplamic reticulum- drew rough and smooth edges on a piece of construction paper.
Golgi apparatus- plastic fishing worms that I cut to shape and size that I wanted.
Lysosomes and vesicles- A fishing worm that I cut the end off.
Mitochondria- A kidney bean that I drew designs on.
Cillia or flagella made of microtubles- plastic craft string that I cut to size.

Unit One Building a Cell Project

2008-06-13T11:25:00.000-07:00

List of the parts of the cell by the numbers on the cell model.
1) Cell Membrane: The outer surface of a cell that controls molecules entrance and exit.
2) Nucleus With Nuclear Membrane: Two membranes that enclose a flattened sac and are connected at the nucleor pore. It is enmeshed in a group of filaments for strength.
Endoplasmic reticulum: A complex network of membrane enclosed spaces
3) Rough ER: bordered by ribosomes that contain large amounts of RNA.
4) Smooth ER: These membranes smooth because they have no ribosomes.
5) Golgi Apparatus: consists of a stack of flat baglike structures which store and eventually release various products from the cell.
6) Lysosomes and Vesicles: small, round bodies containing many different enzymes. They break down many substances. For example they help white blood cells break down harmful bacteria.
7) Mitochondria: The power producers of the cell which are sausage-shaped structures. They produce almost all the energy the cell needs to live and do its work.
8)Cilia or Flagella Made of Microtubules: cylinders of protein molecules and they function to determine cell shape and variety of cell movements.
Conclusion: My model shows all the parts within a cell. By creating all the different parts by using things around the house gave me a good understanding of what the cell parts look like. I also have a better understanding of their function.

its all about me.....

2008-06-13T11:22:00.001-07:00

Hello, my name is Brandi and I'm a very shy person and really like to keep to myself. I enjoying listening to any kind of music as long as it has a good sound and a good singer. The past two years that I attended Yavapai College I was a member of the womens basketball team. But now I have decided to just focus on working and school. The reasons for taking human biology are I might use the information I learn in my teaching profession. I previously took environmental biology and didnt do as well as i would have liked so I thought human biology would be a lot more interesting to me. I hope to gain the knowlege that I need about the different genetic disorders, cells, and anything else that would help me along the way through the education process.