Species #2

Scientific Name: Spermophilus Lateralis
Common Name: Ground Squirrel

Family: Sciuridae

Ground Squirrels adjust antipredator behavior in complex ways to diversity the predators that eat them. They migrate to other habitats to adapt.Snakes are major squirrel predators. Ground squirrels can hurt shrubs, vines, and trees by chewing on them. They also eat many grasses, seeds, grains, and nuts. They eat more before the winter so that they can live through the time when food won't be easy to get.

Because ground squirrels eat plants they are Herbivores.

Ground squirrel's are not domesticated and I feel they are co-evolving with humans by cleaning up crumbs and uneaten foods that humans leave behind.

Species #1

Scientific Name: Zeamays

Common Name: Corn

Family: Poaceae

Corn is used in many food that we eat. There are economic benefits of improved soil quality with soil rotation (changing from one crop to a different crop after harvest) therefore you get higher yields.

Ethanol is produced from corn as a biomass through industrial fermentation, chemical processing and distillation. Ethanol is used as an alternative gasoline and petroleum. Greenhouse gas is released during ethanol production but is recaptured as a nutrient to the crops that are used in production.

I believe that corn is a domesticated species because corn is all around us in so many food that we eat.

Unit 4 Ethical Issue: Is Population the Problem? And Who Should Reproduce?

The article from Moses and Brown discussed many issues that relate to developed and under developed countries and what has an effect on population. Under developed nations have more children but don't use a lot of energy resources. Developed countries have fewer children but use more resources then under developed nations. One of the reasons for us using so many more resources is because we are using those resources to feed and help out under developed countries. Also we have many advantages that under developed countries do not have the options to and these were not mentioned in the article and can have an affect on population. In developed countries both the mother and father have careers therefore don't have the time to have more children. They also have the options to many different birth control contraceptives that allow them to prevent unwanted births.
Like the article, I believe that education in the developed countries has a lot to do with controlling population. So I really don't believe in the developed countries that population is a problem and does not need to be controlled like under developed countries.

Unit 4 Online Lab

1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

There are many countries that have a high fertility rate. The one I picked was the Soviet Union and it has a fertility rate of 2.29

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate? The country that I selected for low fertility rate was Iraq and has a fertility rate of 7.00

3. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth? I think that high fertility rates happen to younger people is because of unplanned pregnance.

4. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middleaged people. I think that low fertility rates result in middleaged people because they have already started a family or have a good career and dont have time to have a baby.

5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle aged and older people in the population and write ten quick brain storm descriptors that you think it would be like. Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.

Very few elementary schools and high schools, wouldnt need jobs working with children, putting time into other activities such as golfing, fishing, ect..., wouldnt be a lot of toys in the stores to buy, music would be different, television would change, video game sales would decline, fashion, electronics, and housing.

A lot of schools, would need a lot of jobs that deal with children, food, toys, the music would be for younger children, sports, out door activities, fashion, and bigger houses,

Compendium Review Chapters 22, 23 & 24

Chapter 22
Evolution is a scientific theory, ideas that scientists have found to be all encompassing because they are based on evidence collected.
Evolution begins with the origin of life. Biology states that all living things are made of cells and every cell comes from a preexisting cell. Non living chemicals could be how the first cells came to be created by a chemical evolution.
Earth was probably formed over a 10 billion year period. Earth’s atmosphere is much different today then when it was first formed. The primitive atmosphere was more than likely formed by gases escaping from volcanoes so therefore had little if any free oxygen.
The oceans of the world were produced by enormous amounts of rain over hundreds of millions of years.
A protocell which can not reproduce but can carry on metabolism could have come into existence. Since it could not take in molecules in the ocean for food, it more than likely was an organism that took in preformed food and being a fermenter and not requiring free oxygen because primitive Earth had no free oxygen.
Scientists were trying to figure out how cells had both RNA and DNA. By doing many hypotheses they found out that RNA formed from enzymes and then they could use RNA as a template to form DNA.
In today’s cells, DNA replicates before cell division occurs because true cells reproduce. The replication process is carried out by enzymatic proteins.
The first true cells were the simplest of life forms and lacked a nucleus, later cells which have a nuclei evolved. All of these organisms are alive today.
Almost all living organisms use the same basic biochemical molecules, including DNA, ATP, and many enzymes. Humans share a large number of genes with much simpler organisms. Life’s vast diversity came about by only a slight difference in the regulation of genes.
Biological evolution: is the process by which a species changes through time.
Two aspects to this type of evolution: descent from a common ancestor and adapt to the environment and adapt to different environments and be able to survive and reproduce in this environment.
A mechanism for adaptation called natural selection. Members of a species vary in physical characteristics. There are limited resources that mean there is competition for it which results in unequal reproduction among members of a population.
Adaptation to changes in the environment and selects for better adapted traits natural section accounts for the great diversity life. Every organism adapt differently to their own way of life.
Fossils which are the actual remains of species that lived on Earth at least 10,000 to billions of years ago are the best evidence for evolution.
Fossils can be: trails, footprints, burrows, worm casts, preserved droppings, pieces of bones, impressions of plants, insects in tree amber, Most fossils are found embedded in rock. Many things have been learned about primitive life by studying fossils including history of life, climates and environments.
The origin of mammals is well documented by studying fossils. The earliest true mammals are about 200 million years old.
The study of distribution of plants and animals in different places throughout the world is Biogeography. There are different mix of plants and animals in separate continents, islands and seas. Some animal types may not be in some continents because they evolved somewhere else and had no way of reaching other parts even though the environment might be suited for them. Many unique species make their home in the islands of the world but are not found anywhere else in the world. The reason for this is they migrated to that island and then evolved into different species on that island. Many times evolution is influenced by the mix of plants and animals in a particular continent.
The anatomical similarities among organisms can be explained that the basic plan belonged to a common ancestor and the plan was adapted as each group continued along its own evolutionary path. Some are similar because they are inherited from a common ancestor, however in contrast some have structures that serve the same function but they are not constructed the same nor do they share a common ancestry.
During adaptation a species becomes suited to its environment, this process is natural selection. Variation, competition for limited resources such as food and adaptation are the elements of this process. This accounts for the diversity of life in the different environments and why the adaptations are varied.
Humans are primates, meaning they have mobile limbs, grasping hands, a flattened face, binocular vision, a large complex brain and a reduced reproductive rate. Humans are most closely related to monkeys and apes because monkeys and apes have certain characteristics similar to us.
The first modern humans were Neandertals and Cro-Magnons and later Homo habilis which may be the ancestor to modern human, the study of fossils date the early homo between 2.0 and 1.9 MYA and the jaw and teeth resemble those of humans. It is very unlikely that human evolution produced the same result in different places. Therefore human populations have evolved separately for along time with genetic differences.
Since the beginning of human evolution just like with other species, human beings have been widely distributed about the globe. Today we say that people have different ethnicities. One hypothesized theory is that human variations evolved to adapt to a certain environment, like the difference between humans skin color. However other differences among ethnic groups such as hair texture and shape of lips cannot be explained as adaptation to the environment. These features may have been fixed in different ethnic populations simply by genetics.


Chapter 23
Ecosystem: is a place where organisms interact with themselves and the environment physically and chemically.
Organisms are found on planet earth from the atmosphere to the depths of the oceans and everything in between is known as the biosphere. The entire biosphere is one giant ecosystem.
The different ecosystems
Temperature and rainfall define the biomes, which contain communities of organisms adapted to the regional climate
Tropical rain forest, which occurs at the equator, is dominated by large evergreen, broad leaved trees.
Savanna is tropical grassland that supports many types of grazing animals.
Temperate grasslands receive less rainfall than temperate forest and more water than deserts which lack trees.
Taiga is a very cold northern coniferous forest and the tundra which borders the North Pole, is also very cold, long winters and short growing seasons.
Aquatic ecosystems are those composed of freshwater and those composed of salt water.
The role of an organism in an ecosystem like how it gets its food, what it eats and how it interacts with other populations in the same community is a niche.
Non living components of the ecosystem are abiotic components. Biotic components are living things that are categorized by their food source.
Some species are autotrophs and are called producers because they produce food. Other species are called heterotrophs and they need a source of organic nutrients. They consume food so are therefore consumers.
Herbivores: animals that graze directly on plants or algae
Carnivores: animals that feed on other animals
Omnivores: animals that feed both on plants and animals
Detritus feeders: organisms that feed on detritus (decomposing particles of organic matter)
All species play an important role in the food chain, therefore are important to the ecosystem.
Global biogeochemical cycles: pathways by which chemicals circulate through ecosystems involve both living and nonliving components. All organisms require a variety of organic and/or inorganic nutrients. Global biogeochemical cycle can be gaseous or sedimentary.
The water cycle—evaporation from the ocean, precipitation to ocean, precipitation over land, transportation from plants, evaporation from soil, freshwater runoff, aquifer
The carbon cycle---plants take up carbon dioxide from the air and incorporate carbon into nutrients, when organisms respire carbon is returned to the atmosphere therefore carbon recycles to plants by the atmosphere, carbon dioxide from the air combines with water to produce HCO3, the amount of HCO3 in the water is in equilibrium with the amount of carbon dioxide in the air, living and dead organisms contain organic carbon and serve as reservoirs for the carbon cycle, plant and animal remains were transformed into fossil fuels, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases are contributing significantly to an overall rise in the Earth’s ambient temperature, a phenomenon referred to by scientists as global warming. This effect could bring about other changes.

Chapter 24
Growth rate is determined by considering the different between the number of persons born per year and the number who die per year.
The carrying capacity is the maximum population that the environment can support for an indefinite period.
The more development countries (MDC) typified by countries in north America and Europe, population growth is modest and people enjoy a good standard of living.
The less development countries (LDCS) typified by some countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America population growth is dramatic and the majority of people live in poverty.
People can help out ecological by driving energy efficient car, living in a smaller house, owning fewer possessions, eating vegetables as opposed to meat.
Living right on the coast can be bad because it leads to beach erosion and loss of habitat for marine organisms and loss of a buffer zone for storms. About 70% of the world’s beaches are eroding.
In water poor areas of the world, people might not have clean drinking water or impure. Food comes from three activities: growing crops, raised animals and fishing the seas.
Genetic engineering produces transgenic plants with new and different traits. Researchers hope to produce crops that tolerate salt drought and cold.
Modern society runs on various types of energy. Some are nonrenewable such as fossil fuels and global climate change. Others are renewable: hydropower,geothermal energy, wind power, energy and the solar hydrogen revolution and photovoltaic solar cell.
Life on earth is biodiversity which means the number of species on earth. We are now in a biodiversity eristic because of extinction. Why is biodiversity so important? Different species perform useful services for human beings and contribute greatly to the value we should place on biodiversity.
A sustainable society will always be able to provide the same amount of goods and services for future generations as it does at present.
We are quick to realize that population growth in the LDCs creates an environmental burden, we also need to consider excessive resource consumption of the MDCs also stresses the environment.

Compendium Review Chapters 16 & 17

Chapter 16
Puberty is events that a child goes through in order to become sexually competent young adults it happens between the ages of 11 & 13 in girls and 14 & 16 in boys. Until puberty is complete, the reproductive system does not begin to fully function and at this time the individual is capable of producing children.
Reproduction organs have these functions:
In men they produce sperm within testes, and in females they produce eggs within ovaries.
Males nurture and transport sperm in ducts till it leaves the penis and in females they transport eggs in uterine tubes to the uterus.
The penis delivers sperm to the vagina that receives the sperm. The vagina also is the exit for menstrual flow and is the birth canal.
The uterus allows the fertilized egg to develop in her body. After the birth the female breast provides milk.
The testes and ovaries produce sex hormones that help maintain the testes and ovaries and have effects on the body. In the females the sex hormones allow pregnancy to continue.

Male Reproductive Organs and their function:
There are two testes and they are suspended in the sacs of the scrotum and they produce sperm and sex hormones. Sperm matures in a tightly coiled duct lying outside each testis. Mature sperm is required for it to swim to the egg.
These tightly coiled ducts where sperm matures are called epididymides.
Vasa deferentia is another storage place for sperm after leaving the epididymides. Each Vas deferens passes into the abdominal cavity where it curves around the bladder and empties into the ejaculatory duct.
Urethra is where the ejaculatory ducts enter and it conducts sperm. The urethra carries either urine or semen at different times.
Seminal vesicles, Bulbourethral glands and prostrate gland each contribute fluid to the semen. The seminal vesicles also add nutrients.
Penis is an organ of sexual intercourse. During sexual arousal nerves release nitric oxide, and this stimulus leads to the production of cyclic guanosine monophosphate which causes the smooth muscle of the arterial walls to relax. The erectile tissue will fill with blood and the veins that take blood away from the penis are compressed and the penis becomes erect. Ejaculation occurs as sexual stimulation intensifies, sperm enters the urethra from each vas deferens and the glands contribute secretions to the seminal fluid. Rhythmic muscle contractions cause it to be expelled from the penis in spurts. At the time of ejaculation, sperm leaves the penis in a fluid called semen.
The penis is covered by a layer of skin called foreskin. Shortley after birth this skin is surgical removed.

The prostrate can become enlarged in older men which squeezes off the urethra making urination painful and difficult. This condition can be treated medically.

Erectile dysfunction or impotency occurs when the erectile tissue does not expand enough to compress the veins. Medications can treat Erectile dysfunction by inhibiting the enzyme that breaks down cyclic guanosine monophosphate making it possible for a full erection.


Condoms are 97% effective in preventing pregnancy if they are used right. The reason is because a condom catches seminal fluid because it is placed over the erect penis so that it does not enter the vagina.

Mature sperm contain a head, middle piece and a tail. Mitochondria are in the middle piece that provides energy for the movement of the tail. The head has a nucleus covered by a cap which stores enzymes needed to penetrate the egg. Flagellated sperm is very small compared to the egg. As it swims to the egg it is specialized to carry only chromosomes and the egg is specialized to wait for the arrival of the sperm.

Testosterone is the main sex hormone in males. It is essential for the normal development and function of the male reproductive organs. It also brings about male sex characteristics and development of muscles. Males development of hair on face, chest and other regions such as their back is due to testosterone.

Female Reproductive Organs and their function:
Oviducts also called uterine or fallopian tubes and they extend from the uterus to the ovaries. They are not attached to the ovaries but they have finger like projections that sweep over the ovaries. An egg bursts from an ovary during ovulation into an oviduct and this is where fertilization occurs. Zygote formation which is the first cell of a new human being takes place in these oviducts.
Uterus is where the developing embryo arrives after several days. The uterus is referred to as the womb because it houses the embryo and this is where development of the embryo and fetus takes place. The uterus is a muscular organ about the size and shape of an inverted pear. Endometrium is the lining of the uterus which participates in the formation of the placenta. The placenta supplies nutrients needed for fetal development.
Ovaries, there are two and they produce eggs and sex hormones. An ovary contains follicles and each one contains an oocyte which is an immature egg. Only a small number of follicles ever mature because a female usually produces only one egg per month during the ovarian cycle.
Cervix is at the lower end of the uterus and contains the opening to the uterus and it enters the vagina nearly at a right angle. A small opening in the cervix leads to the vaginal canal.
Vagina is a tube that lies to the small of the back. The vagina serves as the birth canal and receives the penis during sexual intercourse. It also is the exit for menstrual flow.
The urinary and reproductive systems in a female are entirely separate unlike a male. The urethra carries only urine whereas the vagina serves as the birth canal and organ to receive the penis during intercourse.

A pap test is very important for early detection of cancer in the cervix. The pap test is done by removing cells from the region of the cervix and examining them under a microscope. If the cells from the pap are cancerous they may recommend that you have a hysterectomy. A hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus including the cervix. A radical hysterectomy is removal of the ovaries as well.

The clitoris is the organ of sexual arousal in a female and can swell to two or three times it usual size because it becomes engorged with blood during sexual stimulation. The thrusting of the penis and the pressure of the pubic symphyses of the partners’ act to stimulate the clitoris.

Estrogen and Progesterone are hormones that affect not only the uterus but other parts of the body too. Estrogen is responsible for the secondary sex characteristics in females like body hair and fat distribution. Both hormones are required for breast development.

If an egg is not fertilized by a sperm cell than it dies shortly after be released from the ovary. When appropriate the vesicular follicle bursts releasing the egg surrounded by a clear membrane which is ovulation.

Menopause occurs in a women’s life between the ages of 45 and 55 and this is when the ovarian cycle ceases. The ovaries are no longer responsive to the gonadotropic hormones and the ovaries no longer secrete estrogen and progesterone. At the onset menstruation becomes irregular. However it is still possible for a woman to conceive as long as it occurs. Menopause is not considered complete until menstruation is absent for a year.

The different forms of contraceptives (birth control) are the intrauterine device, hormone skin patch, Depo-Provera, diaphragms and spermicidal jelly, female condom, male condom, implant and oral contraception. Natural family planning which is keeping records to determine day of ovulation. Pregnancy can’t occur when the female is not ovulating. Each one has a different effectiveness and has different side affect on different people. Abstinence (not engaging in sexual intercourse) is the most reliable form of birth control.
Tubal ligation consists of cutting and sealing the oviducts on a female, pregnancy rarely occurs because passage of the egg through the oviducts has been blocked.
Vasectomy consists of cutting and sealing the vas deferens on both sides on a male so sperm can not reach the seminal fluid that is ejected at the time of orgasm.
Both tubal ligation and vasectomy are methods that bring about sterilization and are permanent.

Infertility is the failure of a couple to achieve pregnancy after one year of regular unprotected intercourse. There are several causes of infertility in males and females. The most common cause in males is low sperm count. The most significant factor in females is body weight.

The different types of sexually transmitted diseases (STD’S):
STD’S CAUSED BY VIRUSES:
Genital warts carriers might not have any signs. When present the warts are mostly found on the penis and foreskin of men and near the vaginal opening in women.
Genital herpes type 1 usually cause cold sores and fever blisters

Type 2 more often causes genital herpes
HIV/AIDS- AIDS is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. HIV infects and destroys cells of the immune system. Aids is the advanced stage of HIV when a person develops one or more infections due to the immune system being severely weakened.
Hepatitis infects the liver and can lead to liver failure.
STD”S CAUSED BY BACTERIA:
Chlamydia symptoms are in men are mild burning sensation during urination and vaginal as well as symptoms of a urinary tract infection.

Gonorrhea symptoms are pain during urination and a thick greenish yellow urethral discharge in men. Gonorrhea can spread to internal parts of the body causing heart damage or arthritis.

Syphilis has three stages. #1- sore with hard edges which indicates the site of infection #2- break out in a rash that does not itch #3- this stage last until the person dies and may affect cardiovascular system by causing aneurysms. The disease may affect the nervous system resulting in psychological disturbances. Large ulcers may develop on the skin or within internal organs.

Chapter 17
Fertilization is the joining of sperm and egg to form a zygote the first cell of the new individual then it goes over the process the sperm cell goes through to fertilize an egg.

Pre Embryonic and embryonic development
Process of development
Cleavage happens right after fertilization then the zygote divides first into 2 then 4,8,16 and 32 cells. Cell division during this stage is mitotic and each cell will receive a full complement of chromosomes and genes.
Growth during the embryonic development cell division happens by an increase size of the daughter cells.
Morphogenesis is the shaping of the embryo and is shown when certain cells are seen to move or migrate in relation to other cells. By each one of these movements the embryo begins taking shape.
Differentiation when cells form a specific structure and function, differentiation occurs. The first system that becomes visible is the nervous system.

Stages of development
The first week of pre embryonic development happens during this time.
Second week the embryo usually begins the process of implanting itself in the wall of the uterus.
Third week two important organ systems are formed and start appearing. The organs are the nervous system and development of the heart begins.
Fourth and Fifth weeks the embryo is barely larger then the height of this print.
Sixth through eighth week the embryo changes to a form that is easily recognized as a human being.
The normal gestation period is 280 days, however only about 5% of babies actually arrive on the predicted date. A doctor can calculate the due date by adding 280 days to the start of the womans last menstruation date.

Pregnancy and birth
When first pregnant the women might experience nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Although some women say that during this time they have increase in energy. Also during pregnancy the mother gains weight due to breast and uterine enlargement weight of the fetus, amount of amniotic fluid, size of the placenta, her own increase in total body fluid and an increase in storage of proteins, fats and minerals. The increase in weight can result in lower back problems. The uterus relaxes, the pulmonary values increase there can be other problems as the uterus enlarges.
Birth
At first the uterus has light contractions but near the end of pregnancy the contractions may become stronger and more frequent. The uterine contractions are induced by a stretching of the cervix that also brings the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland. Prior to the first stage of parturition which is the process of giving birth to an offspring there can be a bloody show caused by expulsion of a mucous plug from the cervical canal.
Stage 1
The cervical canal slowly disappears as the lower part of the uterus is pulled upward towards the baby’s head. The baby’s head then acts as a wedge to assist cervical dilation.
Stage 2
The uterine contractions occur every 1-2 min and last about 1 min. They are followed by the desire to push and bear down. As the baby’s head is into the vagina the desire to push increases. When the head get to the exterior it turns so the back of the head is uppermost. As soon as the head is out, the doctor may hold the head and guide it downward while one shoulder and then the other emerges. Once the baby’s breathing is normal the umbilical cord is cut and tied severing the child from the placenta.
Stage 3
The placenta or afterbirth is delivered during the third stage of parturition. 15 minutes after delivery the uterine muscular contraction shrink the uterus and dislodge the placenta. The placenta then is expelled into the vagina.

Development does not cease once birth has occurred. It continues through the stages of life. Infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Aging contributes to progressive changes that contribute to an increased risk of infirmity, disease and death. Research indicates that aging has a genetic basis.

Embronic and Fetal Development Online Lab

One month: The baby is an embryo that contains two layers of cells

Two months: A this point the baby is about the size of a kidney bean and is constantly moving. The baby now has slightly webbed fingers.

Three months: The baby is about 3 inches long and weighs about an ounce and the fingerprints are now showing.

Four months: The baby is about 5 inches long and weighs about 5 ounces. The skelton is starting to get hard and changing from rubbery cartilage to bone.

Five months: The baby is about 10 inches long if you streach out its feet also by now the eyebrows and eyelids are showing.

Six months: The baby now weighs about a pound and half and the wrinkled skin is starting to become smooth and is putting on baby fat.

Seven months: The baby is 3 pounds and is about 15 inches long. The baby can also now open their eyes and follow light.

Eight months: The baby weighs 4 3/4 it becomes rounder and its lungs are well developed.

Nine months: At this point the baby weighs about 7 pounds and is more then 19 inches but these numbers can be different in every baby.